EFFECTS OF LINSEED LIPID ON RUMINAL FATTY ACID METABOLISM, NUTRIENT DIGESTIBILITY, MILK FATTY ACID COMPOSITION, AND METHANE EMISSION IN RUMINANTS
Keywords:
Linseed lipid, methane emission, milk fatty acid, ruminantAbstract
Linseed lipid in the dietary composition is a major factor influencing the fatty acid composition of milk from ruminants, because fatty acids which reach the duodenum are, at least in part, of dietary origin as well as the result of ruminal microbial biohydrogenation of dietary lipids. In this review, the effect of linseed lipid on ruminal fatty acid metabolism, nutrient digestibility, microbial protein synthesis, milk fatty acid composition, and methane emission are discussed. The studies that are undertaken on ruminants mainly use diets supplemented with different linseed forms like linseed oil, extruded linseeds, and rolled linseeds, as sources of n-3 fatty acids. The use of linseed lipid generally increased the flow of cis 18:1, trans 18:1, CLA, 18:3n-3, and total unsaturated fatty acids at the duodenum. Ruminants fed diets supplemented with linseed lipid had greater milk n-3 fatty acids and a sum of unsaturated fatty acids, and lower ruminal methane production. However, a linseed lipid supplement may have some negative effects on nutrient digestibility, microbial protein synthesis, and milk yield. The conclusion is that linseed lipid has a high potential to increase milk fatty acid quality and mitigate methane emission in ruminant feeding.
References
Allen, M.S. (2000). Effects of diet on short-term regulation of feed intake by lactating dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci., 83:1598-1624.
Basset-Mens, C., Ledgard, S., and Boyes, M. (2009). Ecoefficiency of intensification scenarios for milk production in New Zealand. Ecol. Econ., 68:1615-1625.
Bauman, D.E. and Griinari, J.M. (2003).Nutritional regulation of milk fat synthesis. Annu. Rev. Nutr., 23:203-227.
Beauchemin, K.A., Kreuzer, M., O’Mara, F., and McAllister, T.A. (2008). Nutritional management for enteric methane abatement: a review. Aust. J. Exp. Agric., 48:21-27.
Beauchemin, K.A., McGinn, S.M., Benchaar, C., and Holtshausen, L. (2009).Crushed sunflower, flax, or canola seeds in lactating dairy cow diets: Effects on methane production, rumen fermentation, and milk production. J. Dairy Sci., 92:2118-2127.
Bernard, L., Shingfield, K.J., Rouel, J., Ferlay, A., and Chilliard, Y. (2009). Effect of plant oils in the diet on performance and milk fatty acid composition in goats fed diets based on grass hay or maize silage. Brit. J. Nutr., 101:213-224.
Broudiscou, L. and Lassalas, B. (1991). Linseed oil supplementation of the diet of sheep: Effect on the in vitro fermentation of amino acids and proteins by rumen microorganisms. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 33:161-171.
Brown, W., Abu Ghazaleh, A.A., and Ibrahim, S.A. (2008). Milk conjugated linoleic acid response to fish oil and linseed oil supplementation of grazing dairy cows. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci., 21(5):663-670.
Caroprese, M., Marzano, A., Marino, R., Gliatta, G., Muscio, A., and Sevi, A. (2010). Flaxseed supplementation improves fatty acid profile of cow milk. J. Dairy Sci., 93:2580-2588.
Chikunya, S., Demirel, G., Enser, M., Wood, J.D., Wilkinson, R.G., and Sinclair, L.A. (2004). Biohydrogenation of dietary n-3 PUFA and stability of ingested vitamin E in the rumen, and their effects on microbial activity in sheep. Br. J. Nutr., 91:539-550.
Chilliard, Y. (1993). Dietary fat and adipose tissue metabolism in ruminants, pigs, and rodents: A review. J. Dairy Sci., 76:3897-3931.
Chilliard, Y., Glasser, F., Ferlay, A., Bernard, L., Rouel, J., and Doreau, M. (2007). Diet, rumen biohydrogenation, cow and goat milk fat nutritional quality: A review. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 109:828-855.
Chilliard, Y., Martin, C., Rouel, J., and Doreau, M. (2009). Milk fatty acids in dairy cows fed whole crude linseed, extruded linseed, or linseed oil, and their relationship with methane output. J. Dairy Sci., 92:5199-5211.
Chung, Y.H., He, M.L., McGinn, S.M., McAllister, T.A., and Beauchemin, K.A. (2011). Linseed suppresses enteric methane emissions from cattle fed barley silage, but not from those fed grass hay. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 166-167:321-329.
Collomba, M., Schmid, A., Sieber, R., Wechsler, D., and Ryhänen, E.L. (2006). Conjugated linoleic acids in milk fat: Variation and physiological effects. Int. Dairy J., 16:1347-1361.
Conklin, S.M., Runyan, C.A., Leonard, S., Reddy, R.D., Muldoon, M.F., and Yao, J.K. (2010). Age-related changes of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the anterior cingulate cortex of individuals with major depressive disorder. Prostag. Leukotr. Ess., 82:111-119.
Czerkawski, J.W., Blaxter, K.L., and Wainman, F.W. (1966). The effect of linseed oil and of linseed oil fatty acids incorporated in the diet on the metabolism of sheep. Br. J. Nutr., 20:485-494.
Doreau, M. and Ferlay, A. (1995). Effect of dietary lipids on nitrogen metabolism in the rumen: A review. Livest. Prod. Sci., 43:7-110.
Doreau, M., Aurousseau, E., and Martin, C. (2009a). Effects of linseed lipids fed as rolled seeds, extruded seeds or oil on organic matter and crude protein digestion in cows. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 150:187-196.
Doreau, M., Laverroux, S., Normand, J., Chesneau, G., and Glasser, F. (2009b). Effect of linseed fed as seeds, extruded seeds or oil on fatty acid rumen metabolism and intestinal digestibility in cows. Lipids, 44:53-62.
Fuentes, M.C., Calsamiglia, S., Sánchez, C., González, A., Newbold, J.R., Santos, J.E.P., Rodríguez-Alcalá, L.M., and Fontecha, J. (2008). Effect ofextruded linseed on productive and reproductive performance of lactating dairy cows.Livest. Sci., 113:144-154.
Gebauer, S.K., Psota, T.L., Harris, W.S., and Kris-Etherton, P.M. (2006). n-3 Fatty acid dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 83:S1526-S1535.
Glasser, F., Ferlay, A., and Chilliard, Y. (2008). Oilseed lipid supplements and fatty acid composition of cow milk: A meta-analysis. J. Dairy Sci., 91:4687-4703.
Gonthier, C., Mustafa, A.F., Berthiaume, R., Petit, H.V., Martineau, R., and Ouellet, D.R. (2004). Effects of feeding micronized and extruded flaxseed on ruminal fermentation and nutrient utilization by dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 87:1854-1863.
Gonthier, C., Mustafa, A.F., Ouellet, D.R., Chouinard, P.Y., Berthiaume, R., and Petit, H.V. (2005). Feeding micronized and extruded flaxseed to dairy cows: Effects on blood parameters and milk fatty acid composition. J. Dairy Sci., 88:748-756.
Huth, P.J., DiRienzo, D.B., and Miller, G.D. (2006). Major scientific advances with dairy foods in nutrition and health. J. Dairy Sci., 89:1207-1221.
Ikwuegbu, O.A. and Sutton, J.D. (1982).The effect of varying the amount of linseed oil supplementation on rumen metabolism in sheep. Br. J. Nutr., 48:365-375.
Johnson, K.A. and Johnson, D.E. (1995).Methane emissions from cattle.J. Anim. Sci., 73:2483-2492.
Jouany, J.P., Michalet-Doreau, B., and Doreau, M. (2000). Manipulation of the rumen ecosystem to support high-performance beef cattle. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci., 13:96-114.
Kennelly, J.J. (1996). The fatty acid composition of milk fat as influenced by feeding oilseeds. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 60:137-152.
Kim, E.J., Huws, S.A., Lee, M.R.F., Wood, J.D., Muetzel, S.M., Wallace, R.J., and Scollan, N.D. (2008). Fish oil increases the duodenal flow of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and trans-11 18:1 and decreases 18:0 in steers via changes in the rumen bacterial community. J. Nutr., 138:889-896.
Lee, M.R.F., Shingfield, K.J., Tweed, J.K.S., Toivonen, V., Huws, S.A., and Scollan, N.D. (2008). Effect of fish oil on ruminal-biohydrogenation of C18 unsaturated fatty acids in steers fed grass or red clover silages. Animal, 2:1859-1869.
Loor, J.J., Ueda, K., Ferlay, A., Chilliard, Y., and Doreau, M. (2004). Biohydrogenation, duodenal flow, and intestinal digestibility of trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in response to dietary forage: Concentrate ratio and linseed oil in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 87:2472-2485.
Mach, N., Devant, M., Diaz, I., Font-Furnols, M., Oliver, M.A., Garcia, J.A., and Bach, A. (2006). Increasing the amount of n-3 fatty acidin meat from young Holstein bulls through nutrition. J. Anim. Sci., 84:3039-3048.
Machmüller, A., Ossowski, D.A., and Kreuzer, M. (2000). Comparative evaluation of the effects of coconut oil, oilseeds and crystalline fat on methane release, digestion and energy balance in lambs. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 85:41-60.
Maia, M.R.G., Chaudhary, L.C., Figueres, L., and Wallace, R.J. (2006). Metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids and their toxicity to the microflora of the rumen.Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 91:303-314.
Martin, C., Morgavi, D.P., and Moreau, D. (2010). Methane mitigation in ruminants: From microbe to the farm scale. Animal, 4:351-365.
Martin, C., Morgavi, D.P., Doreau, M., and Jouany, J.P. (2006). Comment réduire la production de méthane chez les ruminants? Fourrages, 187:283-300.
Martin, C., Rouel, J., Jouany, J.P., Doreau, M., and Chilliard, Y. (2008). Methane output and diet digestibility in response to feeding dairy cows crude linseed, extruded linseed, or linseed oil. J. Anim. Sci., 86:2642-2650.
Moallem, U. (2009). The effects of extruded flaxseed supplementation to high-yielding dairy cowson milk production and milk fatty acid composition. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 152:232-242.
Noci, F., Monahan, F.J., French, P., and Moloney, A.P. (2005). The fatty acid composition of muscle fat and subcutaneous adipose tissue of pasture-fed beef heifers: Influence of the duration of grazing. J. Anim. Sci., 83:1167-1178.
Petit, H.V. and Côrtes, C. (2010). Milk production and composition, milk fatty acid profile, and blood composition of dairy cows fed whole or ground flaxseed in the first half of lactation. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 158:36-43.
Petit, H.V., Dewhurst, R.J., Proulx, J.G., Khalid, M., Haresign, W., and Twagiramungu, H. (2001). Milk production, milk composition, and reproductive function of dairy cows fed different fats. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 81:263-271.
Petit, H.V., Dewhurst, R.J., Scollan, N.D., Proulx, J.G., Khalid, M., Haresign, W., Twagiramungu, H., and Mann, G.E. (2002). Milk production and composition, ovarian function, and prostaglandin secretion of dairy cows fed omega-3 fats. J. Dairy Sci., 85:889-899.
Petit, H.V., Germiquet, C., and Lebel, D. (2004). Effect of feeding whole, unprocessed sunflower seeds and flaxseed on milk production, milk composition, and prostaglandin secretion in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 87:3889-3898.
Petit, H.V., Ivan, M., and Mir, P.S. (2005). Effects of flaxseed on protein requirements and N excretion of dairy cows fed diets with two protein concentrations. J. Dairy Sci., 88:1755-1764.
Poncet, C., Rémond, D., Lepage, E., and Doreau, M. (2003). How can oilseed crops and high-protein crops be better utilized in the feeding of ruminants. Fourrages, 174:205-229.
Prins, R.A., Van Nevel, C.J., and Demeyer, D.I. (1972). Pure culture studies of inhibitors for methanogenic bacteria. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 38:281-287.
Scollan, N.D., Dhanoa, M.S., Choi, N.J., Maeng, W.J., Enser, M., and Wood, J.D. (2001).Biohydrogenation and digestion of long chain fatty acids in steers fed on different sources of lipid. J. Agric. Sci., 136:345-355.
Shingfield, K.J., Ahvenjärvi, S., Toivonen, V., Ärölä, A., Nurmela, K.V.V., Huhtanen, P., and Griinari, J.M. (2003). Effect of dietary fish oil on biohydrogenation of fatty acids and milk fatty acid content in cows.Anim. Sci., 77:165-179.
Shingfield, K.J., Lee, M.R.F., Humphries, D.J., Scollan, N.D., Toivonen, V., Beever, D.E., and Reynolds, C.K. (2011). Effect of linseed oil and fish oil alone or as an equal mixture on ruminal fatty acid metabolism in growing steers fed maize silage-based diets. J. Anim. Sci., 89:3728-3741.
Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M., and De Haan, C. (2006). Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. FAO, Rome, IT, 390p.
Sutter, F., Casutt, M.M., Ossowski, D.A., Scheeder, M.R.L., and Kreuzer, M. (1999). Comparative evaluation of rumen protected fat, coconut oil and various oilseeds supplemented to fattening bulls. 1. Effects on growth, carcass and meat quality. Arch. Anim. Nutr., 53:1-23.
Sutton, J.D., Knight, R., McAllan, A.B., and Smith, R.H. (1983). Digestion and synthesis in the rumen of sheep given diets supplemented with free and protected oils. Br. J. Nutr., 49:419-432.
Ueda, K., Ferlay, A., Chabrot, J., Loor, J.J., Chilliard, Y., and Doreau, M. (2003). Effect of linseed oil supplementation on ruminal digestion in dairy cows fed diets with different forage: Concentrate ratios. J. Dairy Sci., 86:3999-4007.
Veysset, P., Lherm, M., and Bébin, D. (2010). Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and economic performance assessments in French Charolaissuckler cattle farms: Model-based analysis and forecasts. Agric. Syst., 103:41-50.
Wachira, A.M., Sinclair, L.A., Wilkinson, R.G., Hallett, K., Enser, M., and Wood, J.D. (2000). Rumen biohydrogenation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and their effects on microbial efficiency and nutrient digestibility in sheep.J. Agric. Sci., 135:419-428.
Ward, A.T., Wittenberg, K.M., and Przybylski, R. (2002). Bovine milk fatty acid profiles produced by feeding diets containing solin, flax and canola. J. Dairy Sci., 85:1191-1196.
Wolin, M.J., Miller, T.L., and Stewart, C.S. (1997). Microbe-microbe interactions. In: The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem. Hobson, P.N. and Stewart, C.S. (eds). Blackie Academic and Professional Press, London, UK, p.467-491.
Woods, V.B. and Fearon, A.M. (2009). Dietary sources of unsaturated fatty acids for animals and their transfer into meat, milk and eggs: A review. Livest. Sci., 126:1-20.
World Health Organization [WHO]. (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. WHO technical report, Geneva, Switzerland, No. 916, 148p.
Yalcin, H., Toker, O.S., Ozturk, I., Dogan, M., and Kisi, O. (2012). Prediction of fatty acid composition of vegetable oils based on rheological measurements using nonlinear models. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 114:1217-1224.
