Influence of Hydraulic Properties on the Slope Stability of Unsaturated Soil from the Garinono Formation in Sabah

Suleiman Haji Nassor; Siti Jahara Matlan; Nazaruddin Abdul Taha; Muhammad Mukhlisin

doi:10.59796/jcst.V15N1.2025.88

Authors

Suleiman Haji Nassor Civil Engineering Program, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
Siti Jahara Matlan Civil Engineering Program, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8460-4677
Nazaruddin Abdul Taha Civil Engineering Program, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
Muhammad Mukhlisin Department of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic Negeri Semarang, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.59796/jcst.V15N1.2025.88

Keywords:

Garinono Formation, numerical slope stability analysis, rainfall infiltration, silty clay, unsaturated soil

Abstract

This study investigates the hydraulic response and stability of silty clays from the Garinono Formation during the rainy season, utilizing peak monthly rainfall data recorded over a decade by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Sabah. The research focuses on the impact of rainfall infiltration on slope stability under extreme hydrological conditions, modelled using a 31-day antecedent rainfall event from January 2011. The study incorporates both field and laboratory data, assessing the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC) and bulk density for three distinct soil samples: (i) MI (Intermediate Plasticity Silt), (ii) ML (Low Plasticity Silt), and (iii) CI (Intermediate Plasticity Clay). The SWCC and hydraulic properties were characterized using the Fredlund, & Xing (1994) model, with subsequent numerical simulations conducted using GEO-SLOPE International. Results indicated that sample (ii) ML exhibited increased cumulative water volume with rising rainfall intensity, influenced by its saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, as well as the FX model's fitting parameter . The study revealed that high ratios in samples (i) MI and (iii) CI led to greater runoff and reduced infiltration, characterized by lower water storage and higher discharge rates. Conversely, lower ratios in sample (ii) ML facilitated infiltration, increasing water storage and reducing discharge rates. A notable decrease in matric suction was observed during rainfall, with sample (ii) ML showing the most significant reductions, leading to early and substantial decreases in the Factor of Safety (FS), indicating potential instability. In contrast, samples (i) MI and (iii) CI maintained higher stability due to negative Pore-Water Pressure (PWP) and minimal suction reductions. These findings underscore the critical influence of soil permeability on slope hydrological response and stability during intense rainfall events. This study contributes to the understanding of the hydro-mechanical behaviour of the Garinono Formation, with implications for geotechnical design and slope stability analysis in tropical regions.

References

Abhisekh, S., Yamsani, S. K., & Sreedeep, S. (2016, December 15-17). Effect of soil plasticity and presence of fine particles on SWCC [Conference presentation]. Indian Geotechnical Conference IGC2016, Chennai, India.

ASTM, D. (2000). Standard Test Method for Capillary-Moisture Relationships for Coarse- and Medium- Textured Soils by Porous-Plate Apparatus. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 04(Reapproved), 1–6.

Azmi, M., Ramli, M. H., Hezmi, M. A., Mohd Yusoff, S. A. N., & Alel, M. N. A. (2019, May 18-22). Estimation of Soil Water Characteristic Curves (SWCC) of mining sand using soil suction modelling [Conference presentation]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/527/1/012016

Bernama. (2021). Ranau-Sandakan Road closed due to landslide, Daily Express. Retrieved from https://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news/206650/ranau-sandakan-road-closed-due-to-landslide/

Bernama. (2022). Repair works on Sandakan Road damaged by landslide to begin next month - Bung Moktar, BERNAMA. Retrieved from https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2091213

Bishop, A. W., & Henkel, D. J. (1962). The Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test (2nd Ed.). London, UK: Edward Arnold (Publishers) LTD.

Borneo Post Online. (2023). Ranau-Sandakan Road closed due to landslide, says Sabah JKR, Borneo Post Online. Retrieved from https://www.theborneopost.com/2023/01/30/ranau-sandakan-road-closed-due-to-landslide-says-sabah-jkr/.

BS 1377, B. S. (1990). Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standards Institution. London. UK.

Cao, L., Wang, Z., & Chen, Y. (2016). Unsaturated seepage analysis of cracked soil including development process of cracks. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2016(1), Article 2684297. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2684297

Carvalho, J. C. D., & Gitirana Jr, G. D. F. (2021). Unsaturated soils in the context of tropical soils. Soils and Rocks, 44(3), Article e2021068121. https://doi.org/10.28927/SR.2021.068121

Chung, K. W., Sum, C. W., & Rahman, A. H. A. (2015). Stratigraphic succession and depositional framework of the Sandakan formation, Sabah. Sains Malaysiana, 44(7), 931-940. https://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2015-4407-03

Cornelis, W. M., Khlosi, M., Hartmann, R., Van Meirvenne, M., & De Vos, B. (2005). Comparison of unimodal analytical expressions for the soil‐water retention curve. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 69(6), 1902-1911. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.0238

Das, B. M., & Sivakugan, N. (2019). Principle of Foundation Engineering (9th Ed.). Cengage Learning.

Esmaeelnejad, L., Ramezanpour, H., Seyedmohammadi, J., & Shabanpour, M. (2015). Selection of a suitable model for the prediction of soil water content in north of Iran. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 13(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2015131-6111

Fan, C. C., & Zeng, R. Y. (2016). Effect of characteristics of unsaturated soils on the stability of slopes subject to rainfall. Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication, 2(29), 1060–1064. https://doi.org/10.3208/jgssp.TWN-02

Fathiyah, H. S., & Bahsan, E. (2016, November 9-12). Parametric study on the effect of rainfall pattern to slope stability [Conference presentation]. Sriwijaya International Conference on Engineering, Science and Technology (SICEST 2016), Bangka Island, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201710105005

Fell, R., MacGregor, P., Stapledon, D., & Bell, G. (2005). Geotechnical Engineering of Dams. London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group plc.

Fredlund, D. G., & Xing, A. (1994). Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 31(4), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-061

Fredlund, D. G., & Fredlund, M. D. (2020). Application of ‘estimation procedures’ in unsaturated soil mechanics. Geosciences (Switzerland), 10(9), Article 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10090364

Garcia Aristizabal, E. F., Riveros Jerez, C. A., & Builes Brand, M. A. (2011). Influence of rainfall intensity on infiltration and deformation of unsaturated soil slopes. Dyna, 78(170), 116-124.

GEO-SLOPE International, L. (2023). Stability Modeling with GeoStudio. In GeoStudio. GeoStudio, Seequent.

Habasimbi, P., & Nishimura, T. (2019). Soil Water Characteristic Curve of an Unsaturated Soil under Low Matric Suction Ranges and Different Stress Conditions. International Journal of Geosciences, 10(01), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2019.101004

Harisuseno, D., & Cahya, E. N. (2020). Determination of soil infiltration rate equation based on soil properties using multiple linear regression. Journal of Water and Land Development, 47(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2020.135034

Huong, N. T. N., & Thu, T. M. (2024). Characteristic of Unsaturated Soil of Earth Fill Dams in Vietnam. Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA, 47(1), 106–117. https://doi.org/10.14456/seagj.2016.66

Izumi, T., Matsuura, S., Mohd Yusof, A. F., Razak, K. A., Moriguchi, S., Kure, S., ... & Supar, L. (2019). Disaster Risk Report: Understanding Landslides and Flood Risks for Science-Based Disaster Risk Reduction in the State of Selangor. IRIDeS, Japan; Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 1.

John, K. R. (2020). Swelling Clay Minerals and Slope Cut Failures in the Garinono Formation Along Jalan Sungai Hitam, Libaran, Sandakan. Geological Behavior (GBR), 4(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.26480/gbr.01.2020.29.34

Kechik, F. A., Ibrahim, A., Abu Hassan, Z., Matlan, S. J., Taib, A. M., & Rahman, N. A. (2023). Analysis of influence of air-entry values to unsaturated soil properties. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 129, Article 103340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103340

Khlosi, M., Cornelis, W. M., Douaik, A., van Genuchten, M. T., & Gabriels, D. (2008). Performance Evaluation of Models That Describe the Soil Water Retention Curve between Saturation and Oven Dryness. Vadose Zone Journal, 7(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2007.0099

Kumar, S., & Roy, L. B. (2023). Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Unsaturated Soil Slope Stability with Rainfall and Jute Fibre Reinforcement Condition. Geotechnical Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA, 54(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.14456/seagj.2023.23

Leong, E. C., & Rahardjo, H. (1997a). Permeability Functions for Unsaturated Soils. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 123(12), 1118–1126. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:12(1118)

Leong, E. C., & Rahardjo, H. (1997b). Review of Soil-Water Characteristic Curve Equations. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 123(12), 1106–1117. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(1997)123:12(1106)

Liu, C., & Evett, J. B. (2008). Soils and fundations (7th Ed.). New Jersey, US: Prentice Hall.

Liu, Y., Deng, Z., & Wang, X. (2021). The effects of rainfall, soil type and slope on the processes and mechanisms of rainfall-induced shallow landslides. Applied Sciences, 11(24), Article 11652. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411652

Look, B. G. (2014). Handbook of geotechnical investigation and design tables. (2nd Ed.). Milton Park, UK: Taylor & Francis Group, CRcc Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b16520

Lu, N., & Godt, J. W. (2013). Hillslope hydrology and stability. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Mahmoud, A. I., Hussein, H. A., & Khaled, Z. S. (2021). Numerical Model of Seepage Analysis and Slope Stability for Horan Dam H4 in Iraq. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1076(1), Article 012089. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1076/1/012089

Malaysia Kementerian Kerja Raya Jabatan Kerja Raya. (2009). National Slope Master Plan: Kajian Pelan Induk Langkah-Langkah Pembaikan Cerun di Malaysia (Kajian Pelan Induk Cerun Negara) 2009-2023. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia

Malay Mail (2021). Malay mail, Heavy rain: Jalan Buli Sim Sim in Sandakan closed due to landslide. Retrieved from https://www.malaymail.com/amp/news/malaysia/2021/01/11/heavy-rain-jalan-buli-sim-sim-in-sandakan-closed-due-to-landslide/1939406.

Matlan, S. J., Taha, N. A., Dullah, S., Taharin, M. R., & Hamza, H. (2021). Analysis of rainfall effect on slope failure in Sabah. Malaysian Construction Research Journal, 33(1), 93–100.

Musta, B., Erfen, H. F. W. S., Karim, A. S. R., Kim, K. W., & Kim, J. H. (2019). Physico-chemical Properties and Mineralogical Identification of Soils from Mélange in Beluran-Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1358(1), Article 012073. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1358/1/012073

Nassor, S. H., Matlan, S. J., & Taha, N. A. (2024). Soil-Water Characteristic Curve analysis of silt clay in the Garinono Formation , Sabah. Transactions on Science and Technology, 11(1), 30–42.

Ng, C. W. W., Liu, H. W., & Feng, S. (2015). Analytical solutions for calculating pore-water pressure in an infinite unsaturated slope with different root architectures. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 52(12), 1981–1992. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0001

Ng, C. W. W., & Shi, Q. (1998). Influence of rainfall intensity and duration on slope stability in unsaturated soils. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 31(2), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1998.031.P2.04

Oluyemi-Ayibiowu, B. D., Akinleye, T. O., Fadugba, O. G., & Olowoselu, A. S. (2020). Soil-Water Charateristics of Tropical Clay Soil under High and Low Suction Conditions. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 8(11), 162–175. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2020.811010

Pan, Y., Wu, G., Zhao, Z., & He, L. (2020). Analysis of rock slope stability under rainfall conditions considering the water-induced weakening of rock. Computers and Geotechnics, 128(999), Article 103806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103806

Prasad, M. N. V., & Pietrzykowski, M. (Eds.). (2020). Climate change and soil interactions. Elsevier.

Rahardjo, H., Satyanaga, A., & Leong, E. C. (2012). Unsaturated soil mechanics for slope stabilization. Geotechnical Engineering, 43(1), 48–58.

Ray, R., Samui, P., & Roy, L. B. (2023). Reliability analysis of a shallow foundation on clayey soil based on settlement criteria. Journal of Current Science and Technology, 13(1), 91-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/10.14456/jcst.2023.9

Rehan, M., Almani, Z., Ahsan, M., & Jokhio, J. (2024). Numerical Modelling of Matric Suction in Unsaturated Soil under Shallow Foundation Under Varying Soil and Hydrological Conditions. Jurnal Kejuruteraan, 36(2), 569–580. https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2024-36(2)-17

Research Centre UMS. (2023). Natural Disaster Research Centre (NDRC), Natural disaster database. Retrieved from https://ndrc.ums.edu.my/disaster/browse?order=occurrence_date&sort=desc&page=2

Roslee, R. (2018). Geohazards in Sandakan Town Area, Sabah, Malaysia. Geological Behavior, 2(1), 18–23. https://doi.org/10.26480/gbr.01.2018.18.23

Rosly, M. H., Mohamad, H. M., Bolong, N., & Harith, N. S. H. (2022). An overview: relationship of geological condition and rainfall with landslide events at East Malaysia. Trends in Sciences, 19(8), 3464-3464.. https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2022.3464

Sazzad, M. M., Roy, M. R. I. N. M. O. Y., & Rahman, M. M. (2015). FEM based seepage analysis through earth dam. International Journal of Advances in Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, 4(3), 158-164.

Sharratt, B. S. (1990). Water Retention, Bulk Density, Particle Size, and Thermal and Hydraulic conductivity of Arable Soils in Interior Alaska. Bulletin, 83.

Sheng, D., Zhou, A., & Fredlund, D. G. (2009). Shear Strength Criteria for Unsaturated Soils. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 29(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-009-9276-x

Song, K., Yan, E., Zhang, G., Lu, S., & Yi, Q. (2015). Effect of hydraulic properties of soil and fluctuation velocity of reservoir water on landslide stability. Environmental Earth Sciences, 74, 5319–5329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4541-1

State Environmental Conservation Department (ECD), Sabah, Malaysia. (2001). EIA Guideline for Construction on Hillslopes. In L. P. Siong, V. Moduying, Y. Yangkat, T. Greer, C. Hollaender, & E. Juin (Eds.), The Environmental Conservation Department, Sabah, Malaysia Photos (Issue 1, p. 72).

The European Union. (1997). Eurocode 7 - Geotechnical design - Part 2: Ground investigation and testing. Retrieved from https://www.phd.eng.br/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/en.1997.2.2007-1.pdf

Tao, G., Chen, Y., Xiao, H., Chen, Y., & Peng, W. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Soil‐Water Characteristic Curve in Fractal and Empirical Models. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2020(1), Article 1970314. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1970314

White, S. E. (2018). Physical geology. Journal of Geological Education, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.5408/0022-1368-6.2.28a

Xi, Y., Guo, C., Li, Ji., Zhang, Y., & Yang, S. (2021, May 21-23). A method for determining unsaturated strength parameters in stability analysis of loess slope [Conference presentatuon]. 2021 2nd International Academic Conference on Energy Conservation, Environmental Protection and Energy Science (ICEPE 2021), Dali, China. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127102005

Xue, K., Ajmera, B., Tiwari, B., & Hu, Y. (2016). Effect of long duration rainstorm on stability of Red-clay slopes. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 3(1), Article 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-016-0046-9

Yamusa, Y. B., Hezmi, M. A., Ahmad, K., Kassim, K. A., Sa’ari, R., Alias, N., ... & Rashid, A. S. A. (2019, May 18-22). Soil water characteristic curves for laterite soil at different water contents and methods as lining system [Conference presentation]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/527/1/012002

Yang, S. R., & Huang, L. J. (2023). Infiltration and failure behavior of an unsaturated soil slope under artificial rainfall model experiments. Water, 15(8), Article 1599. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081599

Yang, R., Xiao, P., & Qi, S. (2019). Analysis of slope stability in unsaturated expansive soil: a case study. Frontiers in Earth Science, 7, Article 292. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00292

Yuan, B., Cai, Z., Lu, M., Lv, J., Su, Z., & Zhao, Z. (2020). Seepage analysis on the surface layer of multistage filled slope with rainfall infiltration. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2020, Article 8879295. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8879295

Yunusa, G. H., Kassim, A., & Gofar, N. (2014). Effect of soil layering on suction distribution in unsaturated residual soil slope. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 19, 9351–9376.

Zaky, F. A., & Seboong, O. (2017). Transient Analysis on Infiltration and Stability for Unsaturated Soils in Busan Landslide Area. International Journal of Environmental Science, 2(1), 40–44.

Zhai, Q., & Rahardjo, H. (2011). Determination of soil - water characteristic curve variables. Computers and Geotechnics Journal, 42, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2011.11.010

Zhai, Q., & Rahardjo, H. (2015). Estimation of permeability function from the soil-water characteristic curve. Engineering Geology, 199, 148–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.11.001

Zhai, Q., Rahardjo, H., & Satyanaga, A. (2017). Effects of residual suction and residual water content on the estimation of permeability function. Geoderma, 303, 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.05.019

Zhao, W., Zhou, C., Hu, J., Ma, F., & Wang, Z. (2022). Soil-Water Characteristic Curves and Fitting Models of Collapsible Loess : A Case Study of Lanzhou , China. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 31(4), 3455–3462. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/145412

Zhou, J., & Qin, C. (2022). Stability analysis of unsaturated soil slopes under reservoir drawdown and rainfall conditions: steady and transient state analysis. Computers and Geotechnics, 142, Article 104541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2021.104541